Вот полный список всех нобелевских лауреатов в области физики, химии и медицины. Есть еще нобелевские лауреаты в области литературы и борьбы за мир, но им не принадлежат научные открытия поэтому оставим их в покое. Теперь я надеюсь все имеют возможность самостоятельно сравнить вышеприведенный список из каких то взятых с потолка Львов Израилевичей с тем что имеет место в реальности. А также оценить насколько их процентное соотношение совпадает с приведенной еврейской пропагандой цифрой в 27%. И на основании этого сравнения самостоятельно делать свои выводы для самих себя относительно того где мы все стоим и куда мы все идем.
Ссылка: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_prize
Winners
[edit]
1900s
Year Name Topics
1901 Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen "in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays subsequently named after him"
1902 Hendrik Antoon Lorentz and Pieter Zeeman "in recognition of the extraordinary service they rendered by their researches into the influence of magnetism upon radiation phenomena"
1903 Antoine Henri Becquerel "in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by his discovery of spontaneous radioactivity"
Pierre and Marie Curie "in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel"
1904 John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh "for his investigations of the densities of the most important gases and for his discovery of argon in connection with these studies"
1905 Philipp Eduard Anton von Lenard "for his work on cathode rays"
1906 Sir Joseph John Thomson "in recognition of the great merits of his theoretical and experimental investigations on the conduction of electricity by gases"
1907 Albert Abraham Michelson "for his optical precision instruments and the spectroscopic and metrological investigations carried out with their aid". See Michelson-Morley experiment.
1908 Gabriel Lippmann "for his method of reproducing colours photographically based on the phenomenon of interference"
1909 Guglielmo Marconi and Karl Ferdinand Braun "in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy"
[edit]
1910s
Year Name Topics
1910 Johannes Diderik van der Waals "For his work on the equation of state for gases and liquids."
1911 Wilhelm Wien "For his discoveries regarding the laws governing the radiation of heat."
1912 Nils Gustaf Dalén "For his invention of automatic regulators for use in conjunction with gas accumulators for illuminating lighthouses and buoys."
1913 Heike Kamerlingh-Onnes "For his investigations on the properties of matter at low temperatures which led, inter alia, to the production of liquid helium"
1914 Max von Laue "For his discovery of the diffraction of X-rays by crystals."
1915 Sir William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg "For their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays."
1916 (The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.)
1917 Charles Glover Barkla "For his discovery of the characteristic Röntgen radiation of the elements."
1918 Max Planck "In recognition of the services he rendered to the advancement of Physics by his discovery of energy quanta."
1919 Johannes Stark "For his discovery of the Doppler effect in canal rays and the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields."
[edit]
1920s
Year Name Topics
1920 Charles Edouard Guillaume "in recognition of the service he has rendered to precision measurements in Physics by his discovery of anomalies in nickel steel alloys"
1921 Albert Einstein "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"
1922 Niels Henrik David Bohr "for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them"
1923 Robert Andrews Millikan "for his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect"
1924 Karl Manne Georg Siegbahn "for his discoveries and research in the field of X-ray spectroscopy"
1925 James Franck and Gustav Ludwig Hertz "for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom"
1926 Jean Baptiste Perrin "for his work on the discontinuous structure of matter, and especially for his discovery of sedimentation equilibrium"
1927 Arthur Holly Compton "for his discovery of the effect named after him". See: Compton effect
Charles Thomson Rees Wilson "for his method of making the paths of electrically charged particles visible by condensation of vapour"
1928 Owen Willans Richardson "for his work on the thermionic phenomenon and especially for the discovery of the law named after him"
1929 Prince Louis-Victor Pierre Raymond de Broglie "for his discovery of the wave nature of electrons"
[edit]
1930s
Year Name Topics
1930 Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman "for his work on the scattering of light and for the discovery of the effect named after him"
1931 (The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.)
1932 Werner Karl Heisenberg "for the creation of quantum mechanics, the application of which has, inter alia, led to the discovery of the allotropic forms of hydrogen"
1933 Erwin Schrödinger and Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac "for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory"
1934 (The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section.)
1935 James Chadwick "for the discovery of the neutron"
1936 Victor Franz Hess "for his discovery of cosmic radiation"
Carl David Anderson "for his discovery of the positron"
1937 Clinton Joseph Davisson and George Paget Thomson "for their experimental discovery of the diffraction of electrons by crystals"
1938 Enrico Fermi "for his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons"
1939 Ernest Orlando Lawrence "for the invention and development of the cyclotron and for results obtained with it, especially with regard to artificial radioactive elements"
[edit]
1940s
Year Name Topics
1940 The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section.
1941
1942
1943 Otto Stern "for his contribution to the development of the molecular ray method and his discovery of the magnetic moment of the proton"
1944 Isidor Isaac Rabi "for his resonance method for recording the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei"
1945 Wolfgang Pauli "for the discovery of the Exclusion Principle, also called the Pauli principle"
1946 Percy Williams Bridgman "for the invention of an apparatus to produce extremely high pressures, and for the discoveries he made there within the field of high pressure physics"
1947 Sir Edward Victor Appleton "for his investigations of the physics of the upper atmosphere especially for the discovery of the so-called Appleton layer"
1948 Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett "for his development of the Wilson cloud chamber method, and his discoveries therewith in the fields of nuclear physics and cosmic radiation"
1949 Hideki Yukawa (湯川 秀樹) "for his prediction of the existence of mesons on the basis of theoretical work on nuclear forces"
[edit]
1950s
Year Name Topics
1950 Cecil Frank Powell "for his development of the photographic method of studying nuclear processes and his discoveries regarding mesons made with this method"
1951 Sir John Douglas Cockcroft and Ernest Thomas Sinton Walton "for their pioneer work on the transmutation of atomic nuclei by artificially accelerated atomic particles"
1952 Felix Bloch and Edward Mills Purcell "for their development of new methods for nuclear magnetic precision measurements and discoveries in connection therewith"
1953 Frits (Frederik) Zernike "for his demonstration of the phase contrast method, especially for his invention of the phase contrast microscope"
1954 Max Born "for his fundamental research in quantum mechanics, especially for his statistical interpretation of the wavefunction"
Walther Bothe "for the coincidence method and his discoveries made therewith"
1955 Willis Eugene Lamb "for his discoveries concerning the fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum"
Polykarp Kusch "for his precision determination of the magnetic moment of the electron"
1956 William Bradford Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Houser Brattain "for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect"
1957 Chen Ning Yang (楊振寧 Pinyin: Yáng Zhènníng) and Tsung-Dao Lee (李政道 Pinyin: Lǐ Zhèngdào) "for their penetrating investigation of the so-called parity laws which has led to important discoveries regarding the elementary particles"
1958 Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov (Павел Алексеевич Черенков), Il'ia Frank (Илья Михайлович Франк), and Igor Yevgenyevich Tamm (Игорь Евгеньевич Тамм) "for the discovery and the interpretation of the Cherenkov-Vavilov effect"
1959 Emilio Gino Segre and Owen Chamberlain "for their discovery of the antiproton"
[edit]
1960s
Year Name Topics
1960 Donald Arthur Glaser "for the invention of the bubble chamber"
1961 Robert Hofstadter "for his pioneering studies of electron scattering in atomic nuclei and for his thereby achieved discoveries concerning the structure of the nucleons"
Rudolf Ludwig Mössbauer "for his researches concerning the resonance absorption of gamma radiation and his discovery in this connection of the effect which bears his name". See:Mossbauer effect
1962 Lev Davidovich Landau (Лев Давидович Ландау) "for his pioneering theories for condensed matter, especially liquid helium"
1963 Eugene Paul Wigner "for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles"
Maria Goeppert-Mayer and J. Hans D. Jensen "for their discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure"
1964 Charles Hard Townes, Nicolay Gennadiyevich Basov (Николай Геннадиевич Басов), and Aleksandr Prokhorov (Александр Михайлович Прохоров) "for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle"
1965 Sin-Itiro Tomonaga (朝永 振一郎), Julian Schwinger, and Richard P. Feynman "for their fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics, with deep-ploughing consequences for the physics of elementary particles"
1966 Alfred Kastler "for the discovery and development of optical methods for studying Hertzian resonances in atoms"
1967 Hans Albrecht Bethe "for his contributions to the theory of nuclear reactions, especially his discoveries concerning the energy production in stars"
1968 Luis Walter Alvarez "for his decisive contributions to elementary particle physics, in particular the discovery of a large number of resonance states, made possible through his development of the technique of using hydrogen bubble chamber and data analysis"
1969 Murray Gell-Mann "for his contributions and discoveries concerning the classification of elementary particles and their interactions"
[edit]
1970s
Year Name Topics
1970 Hannes Olof Gösta Alfvén "for fundamental work and discoveries in magneto-hydrodynamics with fruitful applications in different parts of plasma physics"
Louis Eugene Félix Néel "for fundamental work and discoveries concerning antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism which have led to important applications in solid state physics"
1971 Dennis Gabor "for his invention and development of the holographic method"
1972 John Bardeen, Leon Neil Cooper, and John Robert Schrieffer "for their jointly developed theory of superconductivity, usually called the BCS-theory"
1973 Leo Esaki (江崎 玲於奈) and Ivar Giaever "for their experimental discoveries regarding tunneling phenomena in semiconductors and superconductors, respectively"
Brian David Josephson "for his theoretical predictions of the properties of a supercurrent through a tunnel barrier, in particular those phenomena which are generally known as the Josephson effect"
1974 Sir Martin Ryle and Antony Hewish "for their pioneering research in radio astrophysics: Ryle for his observations and inventions, in particular of the aperture synthesis technique, and Hewish for his decisive role in the discovery of pulsars"
1975 Aage Niels Bohr, Ben Roy Mottelson, and Leo James Rainwater "for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection"
1976 Burton Richter and Samuel Chao Chung Ting (丁肇中 Pinyin: Dīng Zhàozhōng) "for their pioneering work in the discovery of a heavy elementary particle of a new kind". In other words: for discovery of the J/Ψ particle as it confirmed the idea that baryonic matter (such as the nuclei of atoms) is made out of quarks.
1977 Philip Warren Anderson, Sir Nevill Francis Mott, and John Hasbrouck van Vleck "for their fundamental theoretical investigations of the electronic structure of magnetic and disordered systems"
1978 Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa (Пётр Леонидович Капица) "for his basic inventions and discoveries in the area of low-temperature physics"
Arno Allan Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson "for their discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation"
1979 Sheldon Lee Glashow, Abdus Salam, and Steven Weinberg "for their contributions to the theory of the unified weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, including, inter alia, the prediction of the weak neutral current"
[edit]
1980s
Year Name Topics
1980 James Watson Cronin and Val Logsdon Fitch "for the discovery of violations of fundamental symmetry principles in the decay of neutral K-mesons"
1981 Nicolaas Bloembergen and Arthur Leonard Schawlow "for their contribution to the development of laser spectroscopy"
Kai Manne Börje Siegbahn "for his contribution to the development of high-resolution electron spectroscopy"
1982 Kenneth G. Wilson "for his theory for critical phenomena in connection with phase transitions"
1983 Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar "for his theoretical studies of the physical processes of importance to the structure and evolution of the stars". See Chandrasekhar limit
William Alfred Fowler "for his theoretical and experimental studies of the nuclear reactions of importance in the formation of the chemical elements in the universe"
1984 Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer "for their decisive contributions to the large project, which led to the discovery of the field particles W and Z, communicators of weak interaction"
1985 Klaus von Klitzing "for the discovery of the quantized Hall effect"
1986 Ernst Ruska "for his fundamental work in electron optics, and for the design of the first electron microscope"
Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer "for their design of the scanning tunneling microscope"
1987 Johannes Georg Bednorz and Karl Alexander Müller "for their important break-through in the discovery of superconductivity in ceramic materials"
1988 Leon Max Lederman, Melvin Schwartz, and Jack Steinberger "for the neutrino beam method and the demonstration of the doublet structure of the leptons through the discovery of the muon neutrino"
1989 Norman Foster Ramsey "for the invention of the separated oscillatory fields method and its use in the hydrogen maser and other atomic clocks"
Hans Georg Dehmelt and Wolfgang Paul "for the development of the ion trap technique"
[edit]
1990s
Year Name Topics
1990 Jerome Isaac Friedman, Henry Way Kendall, and Richard Edward Taylor "for their pioneering investigations concerning deep inelastic scattering of electrons on protons and bound neutrons, which have been of essential importance for the development of the quark model in particle physics"
1991 Pierre-Gilles de Gennes "for discovering that methods developed for studying order phenomena in simple systems can be generalized to more complex forms of matter, in particular to liquid crystals and polymers"
1992 Georges Charpak "for his invention and development of particle detectors, in particular the multiwire proportional chamber"
1993 Russell Alan Hulse and Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr. "for the discovery of a new type of pulsar, a discovery that has opened up new possibilities for the study of gravitation"
1994 Both "for pioneering contributions to the development of neutron scattering techniques for studies of condensed matter"
Bertram Neville Brockhouse "for the development of neutron spectroscopy"
Clifford Glenwood Shull "for the development of the neutron diffraction technique"
1995 Both "for pioneering experimental contributions to lepton physics"
Martin Lewis Perl "for the discovery of the tau lepton"
Frederick Reines "for the detection of the neutrino"
1996 David Morris Lee, Douglas Dean Osheroff, and Robert Coleman Richardson "for their discovery of superfluidity in helium-3"
1997 Steven Chu(朱棣文, pinyin: zhū dìwén), Claude Cohen-Tannoudji, and William Daniel Phillips "for development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light"
1998 Robert B. Laughlin, Horst Ludwig Störmer, and Daniel Chee Tsui(崔琦, pinyin: cuī qí) "for their discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged excitations". In other words, the discovery of the Quantum Hall effect from an experiment in 1982, which basically found conditions that allowed for observation of fractionally charged electrons.
1999 Gerardus 't Hooft and Martinus J.G. Veltman "for elucidating the quantum structure of electroweak interactions in physics"
[edit]
2000s
Year Name Topics
2000
Zhores Ivanovich Alferov (Жорес Иванович Алферов) and Herbert Kroemer "for developing semiconductor heterostructures used in high-speed- and optoelectronics"
Jack St. Clair Kilby "for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit"
2001 Eric Allin Cornell, Wolfgang Ketterle, and Carl Edwin Wieman "for the achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms, and for early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates"
2002 Raymond Davis Jr. and Masatoshi Koshiba (小柴 昌俊) "for pioneering contributions to astrophysics, in particular for the detection of cosmic neutrinos"
Riccardo Giacconi "for pioneering contributions to astrophysics, which have led to the discovery of cosmic X-ray sources"
2003 Alexei Alexeevich Abrikosov (Алексей Алексеевич Абрикосов), Vitaly Lazarevich Ginzburg (Виталий Лазаревич Гинзбург) and Anthony James Leggett "for pioneering contributions to the theory of superconductors and superfluids"
2004 David J. Gross, H. David Politzer and Frank Wilczek "for the discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction"
2005 Roy J. Glauber "for his contribution to the quantum theory of optical coherence"
John L. Hall and Theodor W. Hänsch "for their contributions to the development of laser-based precision spectroscopy, including the optical frequency comb technique"
Winners
[edit]
1900s
Year Name Topics
1901 Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen "in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays subsequently named after him"
1902 Hendrik Antoon Lorentz and Pieter Zeeman "in recognition of the extraordinary service they rendered by their researches into the influence of magnetism upon radiation phenomena"
1903 Antoine Henri Becquerel "in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by his discovery of spontaneous radioactivity"
Pierre and Marie Curie "in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel"
1904 John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh "for his investigations of the densities of the most important gases and for his discovery of argon in connection with these studies"
1905 Philipp Eduard Anton von Lenard "for his work on cathode rays"
1906 Sir Joseph John Thomson "in recognition of the great merits of his theoretical and experimental investigations on the conduction of electricity by gases"
1907 Albert Abraham Michelson "for his optical precision instruments and the spectroscopic and metrological investigations carried out with their aid". See Michelson-Morley experiment.
1908 Gabriel Lippmann "for his method of reproducing colours photographically based on the phenomenon of interference"
1909 Guglielmo Marconi and Karl Ferdinand Braun "in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy"
[edit]
1910s
Year Name Topics
1910 Johannes Diderik van der Waals "For his work on the equation of state for gases and liquids."
1911 Wilhelm Wien "For his discoveries regarding the laws governing the radiation of heat."
1912 Nils Gustaf Dalén "For his invention of automatic regulators for use in conjunction with gas accumulators for illuminating lighthouses and buoys."
1913 Heike Kamerlingh-Onnes "For his investigations on the properties of matter at low temperatures which led, inter alia, to the production of liquid helium"
1914 Max von Laue "For his discovery of the diffraction of X-rays by crystals."
1915 Sir William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg "For their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays."
1916 (The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.)
1917 Charles Glover Barkla "For his discovery of the characteristic Röntgen radiation of the elements."
1918 Max Planck "In recognition of the services he rendered to the advancement of Physics by his discovery of energy quanta."
1919 Johannes Stark "For his discovery of the Doppler effect in canal rays and the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields."
[edit]
1920s
Year Name Topics
1920 Charles Edouard Guillaume "in recognition of the service he has rendered to precision measurements in Physics by his discovery of anomalies in nickel steel alloys"
1921 Albert Einstein "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"
1922 Niels Henrik David Bohr "for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them"
1923 Robert Andrews Millikan "for his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect"
1924 Karl Manne Georg Siegbahn "for his discoveries and research in the field of X-ray spectroscopy"
1925 James Franck and Gustav Ludwig Hertz "for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom"
1926 Jean Baptiste Perrin "for his work on the discontinuous structure of matter, and especially for his discovery of sedimentation equilibrium"
1927 Arthur Holly Compton "for his discovery of the effect named after him". See: Compton effect
Charles Thomson Rees Wilson "for his method of making the paths of electrically charged particles visible by condensation of vapour"
1928 Owen Willans Richardson "for his work on the thermionic phenomenon and especially for the discovery of the law named after him"
1929 Prince Louis-Victor Pierre Raymond de Broglie "for his discovery of the wave nature of electrons"
[edit]
1930s
Year Name Topics
1930 Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman "for his work on the scattering of light and for the discovery of the effect named after him"
1931 (The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section.)
1932 Werner Karl Heisenberg "for the creation of quantum mechanics, the application of which has, inter alia, led to the discovery of the allotropic forms of hydrogen"
1933 Erwin Schrödinger and Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac "for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory"
1934 (The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section.)
1935 James Chadwick "for the discovery of the neutron"
1936 Victor Franz Hess "for his discovery of cosmic radiation"
Carl David Anderson "for his discovery of the positron"
1937 Clinton Joseph Davisson and George Paget Thomson "for their experimental discovery of the diffraction of electrons by crystals"
1938 Enrico Fermi "for his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons"
1939 Ernest Orlando Lawrence "for the invention and development of the cyclotron and for results obtained with it, especially with regard to artificial radioactive elements"
[edit]
1940s
Year Name Topics
1940 The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section.
1941
1942
1943 Otto Stern "for his contribution to the development of the molecular ray method and his discovery of the magnetic moment of the proton"
1944 Isidor Isaac Rabi "for his resonance method for recording the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei"
1945 Wolfgang Pauli "for the discovery of the Exclusion Principle, also called the Pauli principle"
1946 Percy Williams Bridgman "for the invention of an apparatus to produce extremely high pressures, and for the discoveries he made there within the field of high pressure physics"
1947 Sir Edward Victor Appleton "for his investigations of the physics of the upper atmosphere especially for the discovery of the so-called Appleton layer"
1948 Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett "for his development of the Wilson cloud chamber method, and his discoveries therewith in the fields of nuclear physics and cosmic radiation"
1949 Hideki Yukawa (湯川 秀樹) "for his prediction of the existence of mesons on the basis of theoretical work on nuclear forces"
[edit]
1950s
Year Name Topics
1950 Cecil Frank Powell "for his development of the photographic method of studying nuclear processes and his discoveries regarding mesons made with this method"
1951 Sir John Douglas Cockcroft and Ernest Thomas Sinton Walton "for their pioneer work on the transmutation of atomic nuclei by artificially accelerated atomic particles"
1952 Felix Bloch and Edward Mills Purcell "for their development of new methods for nuclear magnetic precision measurements and discoveries in connection therewith"
1953 Frits (Frederik) Zernike "for his demonstration of the phase contrast method, especially for his invention of the phase contrast microscope"
1954 Max Born "for his fundamental research in quantum mechanics, especially for his statistical interpretation of the wavefunction"
Walther Bothe "for the coincidence method and his discoveries made therewith"
1955 Willis Eugene Lamb "for his discoveries concerning the fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum"
Polykarp Kusch "for his precision determination of the magnetic moment of the electron"
1956 William Bradford Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Houser Brattain "for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect"
1957 Chen Ning Yang (楊振寧 Pinyin: Yáng Zhènníng) and Tsung-Dao Lee (李政道 Pinyin: Lǐ Zhèngdào) "for their penetrating investigation of the so-called parity laws which has led to important discoveries regarding the elementary particles"
1958 Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov (Павел Алексеевич Черенков), Il'ia Frank (Илья Михайлович Франк), and Igor Yevgenyevich Tamm (Игорь Евгеньевич Тамм) "for the discovery and the interpretation of the Cherenkov-Vavilov effect"
1959 Emilio Gino Segre and Owen Chamberlain "for their discovery of the antiproton"
[edit]
1960s
Year Name Topics
1960 Donald Arthur Glaser "for the invention of the bubble chamber"
1961 Robert Hofstadter "for his pioneering studies of electron scattering in atomic nuclei and for his thereby achieved discoveries concerning the structure of the nucleons"
Rudolf Ludwig Mössbauer "for his researches concerning the resonance absorption of gamma radiation and his discovery in this connection of the effect which bears his name". See:Mossbauer effect
1962 Lev Davidovich Landau (Лев Давидович Ландау) "for his pioneering theories for condensed matter, especially liquid helium"
1963 Eugene Paul Wigner "for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles"
Maria Goeppert-Mayer and J. Hans D. Jensen "for their discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure"
1964 Charles Hard Townes, Nicolay Gennadiyevich Basov (Николай Геннадиевич Басов), and Aleksandr Prokhorov (Александр Михайлович Прохоров) "for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle"
1965 Sin-Itiro Tomonaga (朝永 振一郎), Julian Schwinger, and Richard P. Feynman "for their fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics, with deep-ploughing consequences for the physics of elementary particles"
1966 Alfred Kastler "for the discovery and development of optical methods for studying Hertzian resonances in atoms"
1967 Hans Albrecht Bethe "for his contributions to the theory of nuclear reactions, especially his discoveries concerning the energy production in stars"
1968 Luis Walter Alvarez "for his decisive contributions to elementary particle physics, in particular the discovery of a large number of resonance states, made possible through his development of the technique of using hydrogen bubble chamber and data analysis"
1969 Murray Gell-Mann "for his contributions and discoveries concerning the classification of elementary particles and their interactions"
[edit]
1970s
Year Name Topics
1970 Hannes Olof Gösta Alfvén "for fundamental work and discoveries in magneto-hydrodynamics with fruitful applications in different parts of plasma physics"
Louis Eugene Félix Néel "for fundamental work and discoveries concerning antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism which have led to important applications in solid state physics"
1971 Dennis Gabor "for his invention and development of the holographic method"
1972 John Bardeen, Leon Neil Cooper, and John Robert Schrieffer "for their jointly developed theory of superconductivity, usually called the BCS-theory"
1973 Leo Esaki (江崎 玲於奈) and Ivar Giaever "for their experimental discoveries regarding tunneling phenomena in semiconductors and superconductors, respectively"
Brian David Josephson "for his theoretical predictions of the properties of a supercurrent through a tunnel barrier, in particular those phenomena which are generally known as the Josephson effect"
1974 Sir Martin Ryle and Antony Hewish "for their pioneering research in radio astrophysics: Ryle for his observations and inventions, in particular of the aperture synthesis technique, and Hewish for his decisive role in the discovery of pulsars"
1975 Aage Niels Bohr, Ben Roy Mottelson, and Leo James Rainwater "for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection"
1976 Burton Richter and Samuel Chao Chung Ting (丁肇中 Pinyin: Dīng Zhàozhōng) "for their pioneering work in the discovery of a heavy elementary particle of a new kind". In other words: for discovery of the J/Ψ particle as it confirmed the idea that baryonic matter (such as the nuclei of atoms) is made out of quarks.
1977 Philip Warren Anderson, Sir Nevill Francis Mott, and John Hasbrouck van Vleck "for their fundamental theoretical investigations of the electronic structure of magnetic and disordered systems"
1978 Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa (Пётр Леонидович Капица) "for his basic inventions and discoveries in the area of low-temperature physics"
Arno Allan Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson "for their discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation"
1979 Sheldon Lee Glashow, Abdus Salam, and Steven Weinberg "for their contributions to the theory of the unified weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, including, inter alia, the prediction of the weak neutral current"
[edit]
1980s
Year Name Topics
1980 James Watson Cronin and Val Logsdon Fitch "for the discovery of violations of fundamental symmetry principles in the decay of neutral K-mesons"
1981 Nicolaas Bloembergen and Arthur Leonard Schawlow "for their contribution to the development of laser spectroscopy"
Kai Manne Börje Siegbahn "for his contribution to the development of high-resolution electron spectroscopy"
1982 Kenneth G. Wilson "for his theory for critical phenomena in connection with phase transitions"
1983 Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar "for his theoretical studies of the physical processes of importance to the structure and evolution of the stars". See Chandrasekhar limit
William Alfred Fowler "for his theoretical and experimental studies of the nuclear reactions of importance in the formation of the chemical elements in the universe"
1984 Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer "for their decisive contributions to the large project, which led to the discovery of the field particles W and Z, communicators of weak interaction"
1985 Klaus von Klitzing "for the discovery of the quantized Hall effect"
1986 Ernst Ruska "for his fundamental work in electron optics, and for the design of the first electron microscope"
Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer "for their design of the scanning tunneling microscope"
1987 Johannes Georg Bednorz and Karl Alexander Müller "for their important break-through in the discovery of superconductivity in ceramic materials"
1988 Leon Max Lederman, Melvin Schwartz, and Jack Steinberger "for the neutrino beam method and the demonstration of the doublet structure of the leptons through the discovery of the muon neutrino"
1989 Norman Foster Ramsey "for the invention of the separated oscillatory fields method and its use in the hydrogen maser and other atomic clocks"
Hans Georg Dehmelt and Wolfgang Paul "for the development of the ion trap technique"
[edit]
1990s
Year Name Topics
1990 Jerome Isaac Friedman, Henry Way Kendall, and Richard Edward Taylor "for their pioneering investigations concerning deep inelastic scattering of electrons on protons and bound neutrons, which have been of essential importance for the development of the quark model in particle physics"
1991 Pierre-Gilles de Gennes "for discovering that methods developed for studying order phenomena in simple systems can be generalized to more complex forms of matter, in particular to liquid crystals and polymers"
1992 Georges Charpak "for his invention and development of particle detectors, in particular the multiwire proportional chamber"
1993 Russell Alan Hulse and Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr. "for the discovery of a new type of pulsar, a discovery that has opened up new possibilities for the study of gravitation"
1994 Both "for pioneering contributions to the development of neutron scattering techniques for studies of condensed matter"
Bertram Neville Brockhouse "for the development of neutron spectroscopy"
Clifford Glenwood Shull "for the development of the neutron diffraction technique"
1995 Both "for pioneering experimental contributions to lepton physics"
Martin Lewis Perl "for the discovery of the tau lepton"
Frederick Reines "for the detection of the neutrino"
1996 David Morris Lee, Douglas Dean Osheroff, and Robert Coleman Richardson "for their discovery of superfluidity in helium-3"
1997 Steven Chu(朱棣文, pinyin: zhū dìwén), Claude Cohen-Tannoudji, and William Daniel Phillips "for development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light"
1998 Robert B. Laughlin, Horst Ludwig Störmer, and Daniel Chee Tsui(崔琦, pinyin: cuī qí) "for their discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged excitations". In other words, the discovery of the Quantum Hall effect from an experiment in 1982, which basically found conditions that allowed for observation of fractionally charged electrons.
1999 Gerardus 't Hooft and Martinus J.G. Veltman "for elucidating the quantum structure of electroweak interactions in physics"
[edit]
2000s
Year Name Topics
2000
Zhores Ivanovich Alferov (Жорес Иванович Алферов) and Herbert Kroemer "for developing semiconductor heterostructures used in high-speed- and optoelectronics"
Jack St. Clair Kilby "for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit"
2001 Eric Allin Cornell, Wolfgang Ketterle, and Carl Edwin Wieman "for the achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms, and for early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates"
2002 Raymond Davis Jr. and Masatoshi Koshiba (小柴 昌俊) "for pioneering contributions to astrophysics, in particular for the detection of cosmic neutrinos"
Riccardo Giacconi "for pioneering contributions to astrophysics, which have led to the discovery of cosmic X-ray sources"
2003 Alexei Alexeevich Abrikosov (Алексей Алексеевич Абрикосов), Vitaly Lazarevich Ginzburg (Виталий Лазаревич Гинзбург) and Anthony James Leggett "for pioneering contributions to the theory of superconductors and superfluids"
2004 David J. Gross, H. David Politzer and Frank Wilczek "for the discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction"
2005 Roy J. Glauber "for his contribution to the quantum theory of optical coherence"
John L. Hall and Theodor W. Hänsch "for their contributions to the development of laser-based precision spectroscopy, including the optical frequency comb technique"
Nobel Prize in Chemistry
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List of Nobel Prize laureates in Chemistry from 1901 to the present day.
Year Name Topics
1901 Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff "for his discovery of the laws of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressure in solutions"
1902 Hermann Emil Fischer "for his work on sugar and purine syntheses"
1903 Svante August Arrhenius "for his electrolytic theory of dissociation (see ion)"
1904 Sir William Ramsay "for his discovery of the inert gaseous elements in air"
1905 Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf von Baeyer "for his work on organic dyes and hydroaromatic compounds"
1906 Henri Moissan "for his investigation and isolation of the element fluorine, and for the electric furnace named after him" See:Moissan electric furnace
1907 Eduard Buchner "for his biochemical research and his discovery of cell-free fermentation"
1908 Sir Ernest Rutherford "for his investigations into the disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances"
1909 Wilhelm Ostwald "his work on catalysis and for his investigations into chemical equilibria and rates of reaction"
1910 Otto Wallach "for his work in the field of alicyclic compounds"
1911 Marie Sklodowska Curie "for her discovery of radium and polonium, and her study of radium"
1912 Victor Grignard, "for his the discovery of the Grignard reagent"
Paul Sabatier "for his method of hydrogenating organic compounds"
1913 Alfred Werner "for his work on the linkage of atoms in molecules"
1914 Theodore William Richards "for his determinations of the atomic weight of a large number of elements"
1915 Richard Martin Willstätter "for his research on plant pigments"
1918 Fritz Haber "for his synthesis of ammonia"
1920 Walther Hermann Nernst "for his work in thermochemistry"
1921 Frederick Soddy "for his work on the chemistry of radioactive substances and investigations into isotopes"
1922 Francis William Aston "for his discovery of isotopes in a large number of non-radioactive elements, and for his whole-number rule"
1923 Fritz Pregl "for his invention of the method of micro-analysis of organic substances"
1925 Richard Adolf Zsigmondy "for his demonstration of the heterogeneous nature of colloid solutions and the methods used"
1926 Theodor Svedberg "for his work on disperse systems"
1927 Heinrich Otto Wieland "for his investigations of the bile acids and related substances"
1928 Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus "for his research into sterols and their connection with vitamins"
1929 Arthur Harden, Hans Karl August Simon von Euler-Chelpin "for their investigations on the fermentation of sugar and fermentative enzymes"
1930 Hans Fischer "for his research into haemin and chlorophyll"
1931 Carl Bosch, Friedrich Bergius "for their contributions to chemical high pressure methods"
1932 Irving Langmuir "for his work in surface chemistry"
1934 Harold Clayton Urey "for his discovery of heavy hydrogen"
1935 Frédéric Joliot, Irene Joliot-Curie "for their synthesis of new radioactive elements"
1936 Petrus (Peter) Josephus Wilhelmus Debye "for his work on molecular structure through investigations on dipole moments and the diffraction of X-rays and electrons in gases"
1937 Walter Norman Haworth "for his work on carbohydrates and vitamin C"
Paul Karrer "for his work on carotenoids, flavins and vitamins A and B2"
1938 Richard Kuhn "for his work on carotenoids and vitamins"
1939 Adolf Friedrich Johann Butenandt "for his work on sex hormones"
Leopold Ruzicka "for his work on polymethylenes and higher terpenes"
1943 George de Hevesy "for his work on the use of isotopes as tracers to study chemical processes"
1944 Otto Hahn "for his discovery of the fission of heavy nuclei"
1945 Artturi Ilmari Virtanen "for his research and inventions in agricultural and nutrition chemistry, especially for his fodder preservation method"
1946 James Batcheller Sumner "for his discovery that enzymes can be crystallized"
John Howard Northrop, Wendell Meredith Stanley "for their preparation of enzymes and virus proteins in a pure form"
1947 Sir Robert Robinson "for his investigations on plant products, especially the alkaloids"
1948 Arne Wilhelm Kaurin Tiselius "for his research on electrophoresis and adsorption analysis"
1949 William Francis Giauque "for his contributions in the field of chemical thermodynamics"
1950 Otto Paul Hermann Diels, Kurt Alder "for their discovery and development of the diene synthesis. Diels-Alder reaction."
1951 Edwin Mattison McMillan, Glenn Theodore Seaborg "for their discoveries in the chemistry of transuranium elements"
1952 Archer John Porter Martin, Richard Laurence Millington Synge "for their invention of partition chromatography"
1953 Hermann Staudinger "for his discoveries in the field of macromolecular chemistry"
1954 Linus Carl Pauling "for his research into the nature of the chemical bond"
1955 Vincent du Vigneaud "for his work on sulphur compounds, especially the first synthesis of a polypeptide hormone"
1956 Sir Cyril Norman Hinshelwood, Nikolay Nikolaevich Semenov (Никола́й Никола́евич Семёнов) "for their research into the mechanism of chemical reactions"
1957 Sir Alexander Todd "for his work on nucleotides and nucleotide co-enzymes"
1958 Frederick Sanger "for his work on the structure of proteins, especially insulin"
1959 Jaroslav Heyrovský "for his discovery and development of the polarographic methods of analysis"
1960 Willard Frank Libby "for his method to use carbon-14 for age determination"
1961 Melvin Calvin "for his research on carbon dioxide assimilation in plants"
1962 Max Ferdinand Perutz, John Cowdery Kendrew "for their studies of the structures of globular proteins"
1963 Karl Ziegler, Giulio Natta "for their discoveries relating to high polymers"
1964 Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin "for her determinations by X-ray techniques of the structures of important biochemical substances"
1965 Robert Burns Woodward "for his achievements in organic synthesis"
1966 Robert Sanderson Mulliken "for his work concerning chemical bonds and the electronic structure of molecules"
1967 Manfred Eigen, Ronald George Wreyford Norrish, George Porter "for their studies of extremely fast chemical reactions"
1968 Lars Onsager "for the discovery of the reciprocal relations bearing his name"
1969 Derek Harold Richard Barton, Odd Hassel "for their contributions to the development of the concept of conformation"
1970 Luis F. Leloir "for his discovery of sugar nucleotides and their role in the biosynthesis of carbohydrates"
1971 Gerhard Herzberg "for his contributions to electronic structure and the geometry of molecules, particularly free radicals"
1972 Christian B. Anfinsen "for his work on ribonuclease"
Stanford Moore, William H. Stein "for their contribution to the understanding of the connection between chemical structure and catalytic activity of the ribonuclease molecule"
1973 Ernst Otto Fischer, Geoffrey Wilkinson "for their work on the chemistry of organometallic compounds"
1974 Paul J. Flory "for his fundamental work, both theoretical and experimental, in the physical chemistry of macromolecules"
1975 John Warcup Cornforth "for his work on the stereochemistry of enzyme-catalyzed reactions"
Vladimir Prelog "for his research into the stereochemistry of organic molecules and reactions"
1976 William Nunn Lipscomb, Jr. "for his studies on the structure of Boranes"
1977 Ilya Prigogine "for his contributions to non-equilibrium thermodynamics"
1978 Peter D. Mitchell "for his formulation of the chemiosmotic theory"
1979 Herbert C. Brown, Georg Wittig "for their development of the use of boron- and phosphorus-containing compounds, respectively, into reagents in organic synthesis"
1980 Paul Berg "for his fundamental studies of the biochemistry of nucleic acids, with particular regard to recombinant-DNA"
Walter Gilbert,Frederick Sanger "for their contributions concerning the determination of base sequences in nucleic acids"
1981 Kenichi Fukui (福井謙一), Roald Hoffmann "for their theories concerning the course of chemical reactions"
1982 Aaron Klug "for his development of crystallographic electron microscopy"
1983 Henry Taube "for his work on the mechanisms of electron transfer reactions"
1984 Robert Bruce Merrifield "for his development of methodology for chemical synthesis on a solid matrix"
1985 Herbert A. Hauptman, Jerome Karle "for their achievements in developing direct methods for the determination of crystal structures"
1986 Dudley R. Herschbach, Yuan T. Lee (李遠哲), John C. Polanyi "for their contributions concerning the dynamics of chemical elementary processes"
1987 Donald J. Cram, Jean-Marie Lehn, Charles J. Pedersen "for their development and use of molecules with structure-specific interactions of high selectivity"
1988 Johann Deisenhofer, Robert Huber, Hartmut Michel "for their determination of the three-dimensional structure of a photosynthetic reaction centre"
1989 Sidney Altman, Thomas R. Cech "for their discovery of catalytic properties of RNA"
1990 Elias James Corey "for his development of the theory and methodology of organic synthesis"
1991 Richard R. Ernst "for his contributions to the development of high resolution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy"
1992 Rudolph A. Marcus "for his contributions to the theory of electron transfer reactions in chemical systems"
1993 Kary B. Mullis, Michael Smith "for contributions to the developments of methods within DNA-based chemistry"
1994 George A. Olah "for his contribution to carbocation chemistry"
1995 Paul J. Crutzen, Mario J. Molina, F. Sherwood Rowland "for their work in atmospheric chemistry, in particular ozone depletion"
1996 Robert Curl, Sir Harold Kroto, Richard Smalley "for their discovery of fullerenes"
1997 Paul D. Boyer, John E. Walker "for their elucidation of the enzymatic mechanism underlying the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate"
Jens C. Skou "for his discovery of an ion-transporting enzyme, Na+K+-ATPase"
1998 Walter Kohn "for his development of the density functional theory"
John A. Pople "for his development of computational methods in quantum chemistry"
1999 Ahmed H. Zewail "for his studies of the transition states of chemical reactions using femtosecond spectroscopy"
2000 Alan J. Heeger, Alan G MacDiarmid, Hideki Shirakawa (白川英樹) "for their discovery and development of conductive polymers"
2001 William S. Knowles, Ryoji Noyori (野依良治) "for their work on chirally catalysed hydrogenation reactions"
K. Barry Sharpless "for his work on chirally catalysed oxidation reactions"
2002 Kurt Wüthrich, John B. Fenn, Koichi Tanaka (田中耕一) "for their development of methods for identification and structure analyses of biological macromolecules"
2003 Peter Agre, Roderick MacKinnon "for discoveries concerning channels in cell membranes"
2004 Aaron Ciechanover, Avram Hershko and Irwin Rose "for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation"
2005 Robert Grubbs, Richard Schrock and Yves Chauvin "for the development of the metathesis method in organic synthesis"
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
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List of Nobel Prize laureates in Physiology or Medicine from 1901 to the present day.
Year Name Topics
1901 Emil Adolf von Behring "for his serum therapy to treat diphtheria"
1902 Ronald Ross "for research on malaria"
1903 Niels Ryberg Finsen "for his light treatment of lupus vulgaris"
1904 Ivan Petrovich Pavlov "for work on the physiology of the digestive system"
1905 Robert Koch "for discovering the cause of tuberculosis"
1906 Camillo Golgi, Santiago Ramón y Cajal "for research on the nervous system"
1907 Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran "for research into protozoa causing disease"
1908 Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, Paul Ehrlich "for study of the immune system"
1909 Emil Theodor Kocher "for work on the thyroid gland"
1910 Albrecht Kossel "for research in cell biology, especially proteins and nucleic acids"
1911 Allvar Gullstrand "for research on the image formation by the lens of the eye"
1912 Alexis Carrel "for work on suture of blood vessels and transplantation"
1913 Charles Robert Richet "for the discovery of anaphylaxis"
1914 Robert Bárány "for research on the vestibular apparatus of the inner ear"
1919 Jules Bordet "for discovery of the complement in the immune system"
1920 Schack August Steenberg Krogh "for showing that the gas exchange in the lungs is ordinary diffusion"
1922 Archibald Vivian Hill, Otto Fritz Meyerhof "for research on muscles, especially their generation of heat and the relationship between oxygen consumption and lactic acid metabolism "
1923 Frederick Grant Banting, John James Richard Macleod "for the discovery of insulin"
1924 Willem Einthoven "for the discovery of the mechanism of the electrocardiogram"
1926 Johannes Andreas Grib Fibiger "for elucidating Spiroptera carcinoma and artificially inducing cancer in an animal."
1927 Julius Wagner-Jauregg "for healing general paralysis by infection with malaria"
1928 Charles Jules Henri Nicolle "for work on typhus"
1929 Christiaan Eijkman, Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins "for discovery of various vitamins"
1930 Karl Landsteiner "for discovery of human blood types"
1931 Otto Heinrich Warburg "for research on cytochromes in cellular respiration"
1932 Sir Charles Scott Sherrington, Edgar Douglas Adrian "for work on the function of neurons, including the fact that stronger stimuli result in a higher frequency of nerve impulses"
1933 Thomas Hunt Morgan "for discovering the role of chromosomes in heredity"
1934 George Hoyt Whipple, George Richards Minot, William Parry Murphy "for discovering liver therapy for anemia"
1935 Hans Spemann "for the discovery of organizing centers in the early development of organisms"
1936 Sir Henry Hallett Dale, Otto Loewi "for work on transmission of nerve impulses via neurotransmitters"
1937 Albert Szent-Györgyi von Nagyrapolt "for the description of vitamin C and the discovery that oxygen combines with hydrogen in cellular respiration"
1938 Corneille Jean François Heymans "for showing how blood pressure and oxygen content of the blood are measured by the body and transmitted to the brain"
1939 Gerhard Domagk "for the discovery of the sulphonamide Prontosil, the first drug effective against bacterial infections"
1943 Carl Peter Henrik Dam, Edward Adelbert Doisy "for the discovery of vitamin K and its chemical structure"
1944 Joseph Erlanger, Herbert Spencer Gasser "for the discovery of different types of nerve fibers"
1945 Sir Alexander Fleming, Ernst Boris Chain, Sir Howard Walter Florey "for the discovery of penicillin and its properties in the cure of infectious diseases"
1946 Hermann Joseph Muller "for the discovery that mutations can be induced by x-rays"
1947 Carl Ferdinand Cori, Gerty Theresa Cori (née Radnitz), Bernardo Alberto Houssay "for the discovery on how glycogen is converted to glucose in the body, and for the effects of hypophysis hormones on sugar metabolism"
1948 Paul Hermann Müller "for the discovery of the insecticide DDT"
1949 Walter Rudolf Hess, Antonio Caetano De Abreu Freire Egas Moniz "Hess for mapping the various functions of the midbrain; Moniz for discovering the therapeutic effect of lobotomy"
1950 Edward Calvin Kendall, Tadeus Reichstein, Philip Showalter Hench "for the discovery of the hormones of the adrenal cortex, their structure and function"
1951 Max Theiler "for developing a vaccine for yellow fever"
1952 Selman Abraham Waksman "for his discovery of streptomycin, the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis"
1953 Hans Adolf Krebs "for the discovery of the citric acid cycle in cellular respiration"
Fritz Albert Lipmann "for discovery and research on coenzyme A"
1954 John Franklin Enders, Thomas Huckle Weller, Frederick Chapman Robbins "for showing how to cultivate poliomyelitis viruses in the test tube"
1955 Axel Hugo Theodor Theorell "for research on enzymes and their actions, especially oxydizing enzymes"
1956 André Frédéric Cournand, Werner Forssmann, Dickinson W. Richards "for showing how to insert a catheter into the heart and studying various heart diseases"
1957 Daniel Bovet "for discovering synthetic drugs such as antihistamines that block the action of biological amines"
1958 George Wells Beadle, Edward Lawrie Tatum, Joshua Lederberg "for showing that genes control individual steps in metabolism"
1959 Severo Ochoa, Arthur Kornberg "for the synthesis of the nucleic acids RNA and DNA"
1960 Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet, Peter Brian Medawar "for the discovery that the immune system of the fetus learns how to distinguish between self and non-self"
1961 Georg von Békésy "for elucidating the cochlea of the ear"
1962 Francis Harry Compton Crick, James Dewey Watson, Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins "for discovering the molecular structure of DNA"
1963 Sir John Carew Eccles, Alan Lloyd Hodgkin, Andrew Fielding Huxley "for describing the electric transmission of impulses along nerves"
1964 Konrad Bloch, Feodor Lynen "for research on cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism"
1965 François Jacob, André Lwoff, Jacques Monod "for discovering messenger RNA, ribosomes, and the genes controlling the expression of other genes"
1966 Peyton Rous "for the discovery of viruses that induce tumours"
Charles B. Huggins "for the discovery of the treatment of prostate cancer with hormones"
1967 Ragnar Granit, Haldan Keffer Hartline, George Wald "for describing the different types of light-sensitive cells in the eye and how light interacts with them"
1968 Robert W. Holley, Har Gobind Khorana, Marshall W. Nirenberg "for describing the genetic code and how it operates in protein synthesis"
1969 Max Delbrück, Alfred Hershey, Salvador E. Luria "for work on the replication mechanism and genetics of viruses"
1970 Sir Bernard Katz, Ulf von Euler, Julius Axelrod "for work on neurotransmitters"
1971 Earl W. Sutherland, Jr. "for discovery of the action of hormones, especially epinephrine, via second messengers"
1972 Gerald M. Edelman, Rodney R. Porter "for discovering the chemical structure of antibodies"
1973 Karl von Frisch, Konrad Lorenz, Nikolaas Tinbergen "for the study of social animal behavior, especially the explanation of the "dance language" of bees and how young birds become fixated on their mother"
1974 Albert Claude, Christian de Duve, George E. Palade "for describing the structure and function of organelles in biological cells"
1975 David Baltimore, Renato Dulbecco, Howard Martin Temin "for describing how tumor viruses act on the genetic material of the cell"
1976 Baruch S. Blumberg "for the discovery of hepatitis B virus"
D. Carleton Gajdusek "for describing the disease kuru caused by cannibalism "
1977 Roger Guillemin, Andrew V. Schally "for work on peptide hormones produced in the brain"
Rosalyn Yalow "for creating the Yalow-Berson method to measure minute amounts of peptide hormones using antibodies"
1978 Werner Arber, Daniel Nathans, Hamilton O. Smith "for the discovery of restriction enzymes which are instrumental in molecular biology"
1979 Allan M. Cormack, Godfrey N. Hounsfield "for developing computer assisted tomography"
1980 Baruj Benacerraf, Jean Dausset, George D. Snell "for discovery of the Major histocompatibility complex genes which encode cell surface molecules important for the immune system's distinction between self and non-self"
1981 Roger W. Sperry "for research on the cerebral hemispheres"
David H. Hubel, Torsten N. Wiesel "for work on the processing of visual information in the brain"
1982 Sune Bergström, Bengt I. Samuelsson, John R. Vane "for the discovery of prostaglandins"
1983 Barbara McClintock "for discovery of mobile genetic elements or transposons in maize"
1984 Niels K. Jerne, Georges J.F. Köhler, César Milstein "for work on the immune system and the production of monoclonal antibodies"
1985 Michael S. Brown, Joseph L. Goldstein "for describing the regulation of cholesterol metabolism"
1986 Stanley Cohen, Rita Levi-Montalcini "for discovering growth factors"
1987 Susumu Tonegawa "for discovering how the large diversity of antibodies is produced genetically"
1988 Sir James W. Black,Gertrude B. Elion,George H. Hitchings "for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment"
1989 J. Michael Bishop, Harold E. Varmus "for discovering the cellular origins of retroviral oncogenes"
1990 Joseph E. Murray, E. Donnall Thomas "for work on organ and cell transplantation"
1991 Erwin Neher, Bert Sakmann "for developing techniques which show that ion channels exist in the cell membrane and which allow to study their properties"
1992 Edmond H. Fischer, Edwin G. Krebs "for discovering how phosphorylation of proteins is used to regulate biological processes"
1993 Richard J. Roberts, Phillip A. Sharp "for the discovery that genes in eukaryotes are not contiguous strings but contain introns, and that the splicing of messenger RNA to delete those introns can occur in different ways, yielding different proteins from the same DNA sequence"
1994 Alfred G. Gilman, Martin Rodbell "for the discovery of G proteins and their role in signal transduction in cells"
1995 Edward B. Lewis, Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard, Eric F. Wieschaus "for the discovery of the genes involved in the developmental program of the fruit fly, the homeobox genes"
1996 Peter C. Doherty, Rolf M. Zinkernagel "for describing how MHC molecules are used by white blood cells to detect and kill virus-infected cells."
1997 Stanley B. Prusiner "for the discovery of prions, infectious protein particles"
1998 Robert F. Furchgott, Louis J. Ignarro, Ferid Murad "for discovery of the signalling properties of nitric oxide"
1999 Günter Blobel "for the discovery that newly synthesized proteins contain "address tags" which direct them to the proper location within the cell"
2000 Arvid Carlsson "for proving that dopamine is a neurotransmitter in the brain whose depletion leads to symptoms of Parkinson's disease"
Paul Greengard "for showing how neurotransmitters act on the cell and can activate a central molecule known as DARPP-32"
Eric R. Kandel "for describing how short-term and long-term memory is formed on the molecular level"
2001 Leland H. Hartwell, R. Timothy Hunt, Sir Paul M. Nurse "for the discovery of cyclin and cyclin dependent kinase, central molecules in the regulation of the cell cycle"
2002 Sydney Brenner, H. Robert Horvitz, John E. Sulston "for establishing the precise order in which cells in the worm C. elegans divide and die, and for elucidating the process of programmed cell death or apoptosis"
2003 Paul Lauterbur and Sir Peter Mansfield "for their discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging"
2004 Linda B. Buck and Richard Axel "for their discoveries of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system"
2005 Barry J. Marshall and Robin Warren "for their discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori and its role in gastritis and peptic ulcer disease"